Teaching

CHAPTER VIII

TEACHING

DEFINITION OF TEACHING.--The Century Dictionary defines "teaching" as "the act or business of instructing," with synonyms: "training" and "education;" and "to teach" is defined:--

1. "to point out, direct, show;" "to tell, inform, instruct, explain;" 2. "to show how (to do something); hence, to train;" 3. "to impart knowledge or practical skill to;" "to guide in learning, educate."

"Educate," we find meaning "to instruct, to teach methodically, to prescribe to; to indoctrinate;" and by "indoctrinate" is meant "to cause to hold as a doctrine or belief." "To educate," says the same authority, "is to develop mentally or morally by instruction; to qualify by instruction and training for the business and duty of life."

UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT NO DEFINITE PLAN OF TEACHING.-- Under Traditional Management there is either no definite scheme of teaching by the management itself, or practically none; at least, this is usually the condition under the most elementary types of Traditional Management. In the very highest examples of the traditional plan the learner may be shown how, but this showing is not usually done in a systematic way, and under so-called Traditional Management is seldom in the form of written instructions.

NO SPECIFIED TIME FOR OR SOURCE OF THE TEACHING.--Under Traditional Management there is no particular time in which this teaching goes on, no particular time allowed for the worker to ask for the instruction, nor is there any particular source from which he obtains the instructions. There is, moreover, almost every hindrance against his getting any more instruction than he absolutely must have in order to get the work done. The persons to whom he can possibly appeal for further information might discharge him for not already knowing. These persons are, if he is an apprentice, an older worker; if he is a journeyman, the worker next to him, or the foreman, or someone over him. An important fact bearing on this subject is that it is not to the pecuniary advantage of any particular person to give this teaching. In the first place, if the man be a fellow-worker, he will want to do his own work without interruption, he will not want to take the time off; moreover, he regards his particular skill as more or less of a trade secret, and desires to educate no more people than necessary, to be as clever as he is. In the third place, there is no possible reward for giving this instruction. Of course, the worker necessarily improves under any sort of teaching, and if he has a receptive mind, or an inventive mind, he must progress constantly, either by teaching himself or by the instruction, no matter how haphazard.

GREAT VARIATION UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--Only discussion of teaching under this type of management with many men who have learned under it, can sufficiently emphasize the variations to be found. But the consensus of opinion would seem to prove that an apprentice of only a generation ago was too often hazed, was discouraged from appealing for assistance or advice to the workers near him, or to his foreman; was unable to find valuable literature for home-study on the subject of his trade. The experience of many an apprentice was, doubtless, different from this, but surely the mental attitude of the journeymen who were the only teachers must have tended toward some such resulting attitude of doubt or hesitancy in the apprentice.

MENTAL ATTITUDE OF THE WORKER-TEACHER.--Under the old plan of management, the apprentice must appear to the journeyman more or less of a supplanter. From the employee's standpoint it was most desirable that the number of apprentices be kept down, as an oversupply of labor almost invariably resulted in a lowering of wages. The quicker and better the apprentice was taught, the sooner he became an active competitor. There seldom existed under this type of management many staff positions to which the workers could hope to be promoted, certainly none where they could utilize to the fullest extent their teaching ability. There was thus every reason for a journeyman to regard the teaching of apprentices as unremunerative, irksome, and annoying.

WORKER NOT TO BLAME FOR THIS.--The worker is not to be blamed for this attitude. The conditions under which he worked made it almost inevitable. Not only could he gain little or nothing by being a successful teacher, but also the bullying instinct was appealed to constantly, and the desire of the upper classmen in hazing days to make the next class "pay up" for the hazing that they were obliged to endure in their Freshman year.

ATTITUDE OF THE LEARNER.--The attitude of the typical learner must frequently be one of hesitancy and self-distrust if not of fear, though conditions were so varied as almost to defy classification. One type of apprentice was expected to learn merely by observation and imitation. Another was practically the chore boy of the worker who was assigned to teach him. A third was under no direct supervision at all, but was expected to "keep busy," finding his work by himself. A fourth was put through a severe and valuable training by a martinet teacher,--and so on.

TEACHING OFTEN PAINSTAKING.--It is greatly to the credit of the worker under this type of management that he was, in spite of all drawbacks, occasionally a painstaking teacher, to the best of his lights. He insisted on application, and especially on quality of work. He unselfishly gave of his own time and skill to help the apprentice under him.

METHODS OF TEACHING USUALLY WRONG.--Unfortunately, through no fault of the worker-teacher the teaching was usually done according to wrong methods. Quality of resulting output was so emphasized that neither speed nor correct motions were given proper consideration.

TEACHER NOT TRAINED TO TEACH.--The reason for this was that the worker had no training to be a teacher. In the first place, he had no adequate idea of his own capabilities, and of which parts of his own method were fit to be taught. In the second place, he did not know that right motions must be insisted on first, speed next, and quality of output third; or in other words that if the motions were precise enough, the quality would be first. In the fourth place he had no pedagogical training.

LACK OF STANDARDS AN UNDERLYING LACK.--All shortcoming in the old time teaching may be traced to lack of standards. The worker had never been measured, hence had no idea of his efficiency, or of possible efficiency. No standard methods made plain the manner in which the work should be done. Moreover, no standard division and assignment of work allowed of placing apprentices at such parts of the work that quality could be given third place. No standard requirements had determined his fitness as a teacher, nor the specialty that he should teach, and no incentive held his interest to the teaching. These standards the worker-teacher could not provide for himself, and the wonder is that the teaching was of such a high character as it was.

VERY LITTLE TEACHING OF ADULTS.--Under Traditional Management, teaching of adults was slight,--there being little incentive either to teacher or to learner, and it being always difficult for an adult to change his method.[1] Moreover, it would be difficult for a worker using one method to persuade one using another that his was the better, there being no standard. Even if the user of the better did persuade the other to follow his method, the final result might be the loss of some valuable elements of the poorer method that did not appear in the better.

FAILURE TO APPRECIATE THE IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING.--An underestimation of the importance of teaching lay at the root of the lack of progress. This is so directly connected with all the other lacks of Traditional Management,--provision for adequate promotion and pay, standards, and the other underlying principles of Scientific Management, especially the appreciation of cooeperation,--that it is almost impossible to disentangle the reasons for it. Nor would it be profitable to attempt to do so here. In considering teaching under Scientific Management we shall show the influence of the appreciation of teaching,--and may deduce the lacks from its non-appreciation, from that discussion.

UNDER TRANSITORY SYSTEM TEACHING BECOMES MORE IMPORTANT.--Under Transitory Management the importance of teaching becomes at once more apparent. This, both by providing for the teaching of foremen and journeymen as well as apprentices, and by the providing of written systems of instructions as to best practice. The worker has access to all the sources of information of Traditional Management, and has, besides these, in effect, unsystematically derived standards to direct him.

SYSTEMS MAKE INSTRUCTION ALWAYS AVAILABLE.--The use of written systems enables every worker to receive instruction at any time, to feel free to ask it, and to follow it without feeling in any way humiliated.

The result of the teaching of these systems is a decided improvement in methods. If the written systems are used exclusively as a source of teaching, except for the indefinite teachers of the Traditional Management, the improvement becomes definitely proportioned to the time which the man spends upon the studying and to the amount of receptive power which he naturally has.

INCENTIVES TO CONFORM TO SYSTEM.--The worker has incentives to follow the systems--

1. In that he is required to render reasons in writing for permanent filing, for every disobedience of system. 2. That, as soon as work is placed on the bonus basis, the first bonus that is given is for doing work in accordance with the prescribed method.

Even before the bonus is paid, the worker will not vary for any slight reasons, if he positively knows at the time that he must account for so doing, and that he will be considered to have "stacked his judgment" against that of the manager. Being called to account for deviations gives the man a feeling of responsibility for his act, and also makes him feel his close relationship with the managers.

NO SET TIME FOR USING SYSTEMS.--There is, under this type of management, no set time for the study of the systems.

SYSTEMS INELASTIC.--Being written, these systems have all the disadvantages of anything that is written. That is to say, they require considerable adaptability on the part of the man who is using them. He must consider his own mind, and the amount of time which he must put on studying; he must consider his own work, and adapting that method to his work while still obeying instructions. In the case of the system being in great detail, he can usually find a fairly detailed description of what he is going to do, and can use that. In the case of the system being not so complete, if his work varies, he must show intelligence in varying the system, and this intelligence often demands a knowledge which he has not, and knows not where to obtain.

WASTE OF TIME FROM UNSTANDARDIZED SYSTEMS.--The time necessitated by the worker's laying out details of his method is taken from the total time of his working day, hence in so far cuts down his total product. Moreover, if no record is kept of the details of his planning the next worker on the same kind of work must repeat the investigation.

LATER TRANSITIONAL MANAGEMENT EMPHASIZES USE OF STANDARDS.--Later Transitional Management eliminates this waste of time by standardizing methods composed of standardized timed units, thus both rendering standards elastic, and furnishing details.

TEACHING MOST IMPORTANT UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Teaching is a most important element under Scientific Management not only because it increases industrial efficiency, but also because it fosters industrial peace.[2]

IMPORTANCE DEPENDS ON OTHER ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--As we have seen, Scientific Management has as a basic idea the necessity of divided responsibility, or functionalization. This, when accompanied by the interdependent bonus, creates an incentive to teach and an incentive to learn. Scientific Management divides the planning from the performing in order to centralize and standardize knowledge in the planning department, thus making all knowledge of each available to all. This puts at the disposal of all more than any could have alone. The importance of having this collected and standardized knowledge conveyed best to the worker cannot be overestimated. Through this knowledge, the worker is able to increase his output, and thus insure the lowered costs, that provide the funds with which to pay his higher wages,--to increase his potential as well as actual efficiency, and best to cooeperate with other workers and with the management.

IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING ELEMENT BEST CLAIM TO PERMANENCE OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Upon the emphasis which it places on teaching rests/a large part of the claim of Scientific Management for permanence.[3] We have already shown the derivation of the standards which are taught. We have shown that the relation between the planning and performing departments is based largely on means and methods for teaching. We have only to show here that the teaching is done in accordance with those laws of Psychology that are the laws of Pedagogy.

TEACHING IN SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT NOT THE RESULT OF THEORY ONLY.--The methods of teaching under Scientific Management were not devised in response to theories of education. They are the result of actual experience in getting work done most successfully. The teachers, the methods, the devices for teaching,--all these grew up to meet needs, as did the other elements of Scientific Management.

CONFORMITY OF TEACHING TO PSYCHOLOGICAL LAWS PROOF OF WORTH OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The fact that teaching under Scientific Management does conform, as will be shown, to the laws of Psychology, is an added proof of the value of Scientific Management.

CHANGE FROM TEACHING UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--Mr. Gantt says, "The general policy of the past has been to drive; but the era of force must give way to that of knowledge, and the policy of the future will be to teach and to lead, to the advantage of all concerned."[4] This "driving" element of Traditional Management is eliminated by Scientific Management.

NECESSITY FOR PERSONALLY DERIVED JUDGMENT ELIMINATED.--So also is eliminated the old belief that the worker must go through all possible experiences in order to acquire "judgment" as to best methods. If the worker must pass through all the stages of the training of the old-fashioned mechanic, and this is seriously advocated by some, he may fail to reach the higher planes of knowledge afforded by training under Scientific Management, by reason of sheer lack of time. If, therefore, by artificial conditions caused by united agreement and collective bargaining, workmen insist upon forcing upon the new learners the old-school training, they will lose just so much of the benefits of training under those carefully arranged and carefully safe-guarded processes of industrial investigation in which modern science has been successful. To refuse to start in where others have left off, is really as wasteful as it would be to refuse to use mathematical formulas because they have been worked out by others. It might be advocated that the mind would grow by working out every possible mathematical formula before using it, but the result would be that the student would be held back from any further original investigation. Duplicating primary investigations might be original work for him, but it would be worthless as far as the world is concerned. The same is absolutely true in management. If the worker is held back by acquiring every bit of knowledge for himself instead of taking the work of others as the starting point, the most valuable initiative will be lost to the world.

BAD HABITS THE RESULT OF UNDIRECTED LEARNING.--Even worse than the waste of time would be the danger of acquiring habits of bad methods, habits of unnecessary motions, habits of inaccurate work; habits of inattention. Any or all of these might develop. These are all prevented under Scientific Management by the improved methods of teaching.

VALUABLE ELEMENTS OF TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT CONSERVED.--There are, however, many valuable elements of the old Traditional system of teaching and of management which should be retained and not be lost in the new.

For example,--the greatest single cause of making men capable under the old plan was the foreman's unconscious ability to make his men believe, before they started a task, that they could achieve it.

It must not be thought that because of the aids to the teacher under Scientific Management the old thought of personality is lost. The old ability to convert a man to the belief that he could do a thing, to inspire him with confidence in his foreman, with confidence in himself, and a desire to do things, is by no means lost, on the contrary it is carefully preserved under Scientific Management.

TEACHING OF TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT SUPPLEMENTED.--In the transforming of Transitory into Scientific Management, we note that the process is one of supplementing, not of discarding. Written system, which is the distinguishing characteristic of Transitory Management, is somewhat limited in its scope, but its usefulness is by no means impaired.

SCOPE OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Under Scientific Management teaching must cover

1. Teaching of right methods of doing work, 2. Teaching of right habits of doing the right methods.

The teacher must so impart the knowledge that judgment can be acquired without the learner being obliged himself to experience all the elements of the judgment.

NEEDS FOR TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The needs for this teaching have been stated, but may be recapitulated here.

1. Worker may not observe his own mistakes. 2. Worker has no opportunity under the old industrial conditions to standardize his own methods. 3. Worker must know standard practice. 4. Waste can be eliminated by the teaching. 5. Right habits can be instilled.

SOURCES OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The sources of teaching under Scientific Management are

1. Friends or Relatives } 2. Fellow workers } If the worker chooses 3. Literature of the Trade } to use them. 4. Night schools and study } 5. The Management. }

METHODS OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The Methods of Teaching under Scientific Management are

1. Written, by means of

(a) Instruction Cards telling _what_ is to be done and _how._ (b) Systems, explaining the _why._ (c) Drawings, charts, plans, photographs, illustrating methods. (d) Records made by the worker himself.

2. Oral, the teaching of the Functional Foremen.

3. Object-lessons:

(a) Exhibits. (b) Working models. (c) Demonstrations by the Teacher. (d) Demonstrations by the worker under Supervision.

WORKER A SOURCE OF THESE METHODS.--It should be often stated that, ultimately, the elements of all methods are derived from a study of workers, and that the worker should be enabled to realize this. Only when he feels that he is a part of what is taught, and that the teachers are a _means_ of presenting to him the underlying principles of his own experience, will the worker be able to cooeperate with all his energy.

INSTRUCTION CARDS ARE DIRECTIONS.--Instruction Cards are direct instructions for each piece of work, giving, in most concise form, closely defined description of standard practice and directions as to how each element of the standardized task is to be performed. The makers know that they must make their directions clear ultimately, therefore they strive constantly for clearness.

INSTRUCTION CARDS TEACH DIRECTLY AND INDIRECTLY.--These Instruction Cards not only teach the worker directly best to do his work, but also teach him indirectly how to become a leader, demonstrator, teacher and functional foreman. Study of them may lead to an interest in, and a study of, elements, and to preparation for becoming one of the planning department. The excellent method of attack of the Instruction Card cannot fail to have some good effect, even upon such workers as do not consciously note it.[5]

SYSTEMS ARE REASONS AND EXPLANATIONS.--"Systems" or standing orders are collections of detailed reasons for, and explanations of, the decisions embodied in the directions of the Instruction Cards. There is a system showing the standard practice of each kind of work.

THEY ENLIST THE JUDGMENT OF THE WORKER.--Under really successful management, it is realized that the worker is of an inquiring mind, and that, unless this inquiring tendency of his is recognized, and his curiosity is satisfied, he can never do his best work. Unless the man knows why he is doing the thing, his judgment will never reenforce his work. He may conform to the method absolutely, but his work will not enlist his zeal unless he knows just exactly why he is made to work in the particular manner prescribed. This giving of the "why" to the worker through the system, and thus allowing his reason to follow through all the details, and his judgment to conform absolutely, should silence the objections of those who claim that the worker becomes a machine, and that he has no incentive to think at his work. On the contrary, it will be seen that this method furnishes him with more viewpoints from which he can consider his work.

DRAWINGS, CHARTS, PLANS AND PHOTOGRAPHS MEANS OF MAKING DIRECTIONS CLEARER.--The Instruction Cards are supplemented with drawings, charts, plans and stereoscopic and timed motion photographs,--any or all,--in order to make the directions of the Instruction Cards plainer.

STEREOSCOPIC AND MICRO-MOTION STUDY PHOTOGRAPHS PARTICULARLY USEFUL.--Stereoscopic photographs are especially useful in helping non-visualizers, and in presenting absolutely new work. The value as an educator of stereoscopic and synthesized micro-motion photographs of right methods is as yet but faintly appreciated.

The "timed motion picture," or "micro-motion study photograph" as it is called, consists of rapidly photographing workers in action accompanied by a specially constructed chronometer that shows such minute divisions of time that motion pictures taken at a speed that will catch the most rapid of human motions without a blur, will show a different time of day in each photograph. The difference in the time in any two pictures gives the elapsed time of the desired motion operation or time unit.

SELF-MADE RECORDS EDUCATIVE.--The educative value of the worker's making his own records has never been sufficiently appreciated. Dr. Taylor insists upon this procedure wherever possible.[6] Not only does the worker learn from the actual marking in of the spaces reserved for him, but also he learns to feel himself a part of the record making division of the management. This proof of the "square deal," in recording his output, and of the confidence in him, cannot fail to enlist his cooeperation.

ORAL INSTRUCTION COMES FROM THE FUNCTIONAL FOREMEN.--The Functional Foremen are teachers whose business it is to explain, translate and supplement the various written instructions when the worker either does not understand them, does not know how to follow them, or makes a mistake in following them.

ORAL INSTRUCTION HAS ITS FITTING PLACE UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Oral instruction under Scientific Management has at least four advantages over such instruction under Traditional Management.

1. The Instructor is capable of giving instruction. 2. The Instructor's specialty is giving instruction. 3. The instruction is a supplement to written instructions. 4. The instruction comes at the exact time that the learner needs it.

TEACHER, OR FUNCTIONAL FOREMAN, SHOULD UNDERSTAND PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY.--The successful teacher must understand the minds of his men, and must be able to present his information in such a way that it will be grasped readily. Such knowledge of psychology and pedagogy as he possesses he may acquire almost unconsciously

1. from the teaching of others, 2. from his study of Instruction Cards and Systems, 3. from actual practice in teaching.

The advantages of a study of psychology itself, as it applies to the field of teaching in general, and of teaching in the industries in particular, are apparent. Such study must, in the future, become more and more prevalent.

ADVANTAGE OF FUNCTIONAL FOREMAN-TEACHER OVER TEACHER IN THE SCHOOLS.--The Functional Foreman-teacher has an advantage over the teacher in the school in that the gap between him and those he teaches is not so great. He knows, because he remembers, exactly how the worker must have his information presented to him. This gap is narrowed by functionalizing the oral teaching, by using it merely as a supplement to the written teaching, and by supplementing it with object-lessons.

TEACHER MUST HAVE PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE TRADE HE IS TO TEACH.--The teacher must have an intimate practical knowledge of the art or trade that he is to teach. The most profound knowledge of Psychology will never be a substitute for the mastery of the trade, as a condition precedent to turning out the best craftsmen. This is provided for by securing teachers from the ranks of the workers.[7]

HE MUST HAVE A THOROUGH KNOWLEDGE OF THE STANDARDS.--He must have more than the traditional knowledge of the trade that he is to teach; he must have also the knowledge that comes only from scientific investigation of his trade. This knowledge is ready and at hand, in the standards of Scientific Management that are available to all for study.

HE MUST BE CONVINCED OF THE VALUE OF THE METHODS HE TEACHES.--The teacher must also have an intimate acquaintance with the records of output of the method he is to teach as compared with those of methods held in high esteem by the believer in the old methods; for it is a law that no teacher can be efficient in teaching any method in which he does not believe, any more than a salesman can do his best work when he does not implicitly believe in the goods that he is selling.

HE MUST BE AN ENTHUSIAST.--The best teacher is the one who is an enthusiast on the subject of the work itself, who can cause contagion or imitation of his state of mind, by love of the problems themselves.

SUCH ENTHUSIASM CONTAGIOUS.--It is the contagion of this enthusiasm that will always create a demand for teachers, no matter how perfect instruction cards may become. There is no form or device of management that does away with good men, and in the teacher, as here described, is conserved the personal element of the successful, popular Traditional foreman.

VALUABLE TEACHER INTERESTS MEN IN THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The most valuable teacher is one who can arouse his pupils to such a state of interest in the economic values of the methods of Scientific Management, that all other objects that would ordinarily distract or hold their attention will be banished from their minds. They will then remember each step as it is introduced, and they will be consumed with interest and curiosity to know what further steps can be introduced, that will still further eliminate waste.

OBJECT-LESSON MAY BE "WORKING MODELS."--The object-lesson may be a "fixed exhibit" or a "working model," "a process in different stages," or "a micro-motion study film" of the work that is to be done. Successful and economical teaching may be done with such models, which are especially valuable where the workers do not speak the same language as the teacher, where many workers are to perform exactly similar work, or where the memory, the visualizing and the constructive imagination, are so poor that the models must be referred to constantly. Models naturally appeal best to those who take in information easiest through the eyes.

OBJECT-LESSONS MAY BE DEMONSTRATIONS BY THE TEACHER.--The teacher may demonstrate the method manually to the worker, or by means of films showing synthesized right methods on the motion-picture screen. This, also, is a successful method of teaching those who speak a different language, or of explaining new work,--though it calls for a better memory than does the "working model," The model, however, shows desired results; the demonstration, desired methods.

DEMONSTRATION METHOD CHIEF METHOD OF TEACHING BY FOREMEN.--The manual demonstration method is the chief method of teaching the workmen by the foremen under Scientific Management, and no method is rated as standard that cannot be successfully demonstrated by the teacher, at any time, on request.

WORKER MAY DEMONSTRATE UNDER SUPERVISION.--If the worker is of that type that can learn only by actually doing the work himself, he is allowed to demonstrate the method under supervision of the teacher.[8]

TEACHING ALWAYS AVAILABLE UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Under Scientific Management all of these forms of teaching are available constantly. The instruction card and accompanying illustrations are given to the worker before he starts to work, and are so placed that he can consult them easily at any time during the work. As, also, if object-lessons are used, they are given before work commences, and repeated when necessary.

The teacher is constantly available for oral instruction, and the systems are constantly available for consultation.

METHODS OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PSYCHOLOGICALLY RIGHT.--In order to prove that teaching under Scientific Management is most valuable, it is necessary to show that it is psychologically right, that it leads to mental development and improvement. Under Scientific Management, teaching,--

1. uses and trains the senses. 2. induces good habits of thinking and acting. 3. stimulates attention, 4. provides for valuable associations. 5. assists and strengthens the memory. 6. develops the imagination. 7. develops judgment. 8. utilizes suggestion. 9. utilizes "native reactions." 10. develops the will.

TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT TRAINS THE SENSES.-- Scientific Management, in teaching the man, aims to train all of his senses possible. Not only does each man show an aptitude for some special sense training,[9] but at certain times one sense may be stronger than another; for example, the sense of hearing, as is illustrated by the saying, "The patient in the hospital knoweth when his doctor cometh by the fall of his footsteps, yet when he recovereth he knoweth not even his face." At the time that a certain thing becomes of interest, and becomes particularly interesting to one sense, that sense is particularly keen and developed.

Scientific Management cannot expect, without more detailed psychological data than is as yet available, to utilize these periods of sense predominance adequately. It can, and does, aim to utilize such senses as are trained, and to supply defects of training of the other senses.

SUCH TRAINING PARTIALLY DETERMINES THE QUALITY OF THE WORK.--The importance of sense training can scarcely be overestimated. Through his senses, the worker takes in the directions as to what he is to do, and on the accuracy with which his senses record the impressions made upon them, depends the mental model which he ultimately follows, and the accuracy of his criticism of the resulting physical object of his work. Through the senses, the worker sets his own task, and inspects his work.

SENSE TRAINING INFLUENCES INCREASE OF EFFICIENCY.--With the training of the senses the possibility of increased efficiency increases. As any sense becomes trained, the minimum visable is reduced, and more accurate impressions become possible.[10] They lead to more rapid work, by eliminating time necessary for judgment. The bricklayer develops a fineness of touch that allows him to dispense with sight in some parts of his work.

SELECTIVE POWER OF SENSES DEVELOPED.--James defines the sense organs as "organs of selection."[11] Scientific Management so trains them that they can select what is of most value to the worker.

METHODS OF SENSE TRAINING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The senses are trained under Scientific Management by means of the various sources of teaching. The instruction card, with its detailed descriptions of operations, and its accompanying illustrations, not only tends to increase powers of visualization, but also, by the close observation it demands, it reduces the minimum visible. The "visible instruction card," or working model, is an example of supplementing weak power of visualization. The most available simple, inexpensive and easily handled device to assist visualizing is the stereo or three-dimension photograph, which not only serves its purpose at the time of its use, but trains the eye to see the third dimension always.

Much training is given to the eye in Scientific Management by the constant insistence on inspection. This inspection is not confined to the inspector, but is the constant practice of worker and foremen, in order that work may be of such a quality as will merit a bonus.

SENSES THAT ARE MOST UTILIZED BEST TRAINED.--The relative training given to the various senses depends on the nature of the work. When the ear is the tester of efficiency, as it often is with an engineer watching machinery in action, emphasis is laid on training the hearing. In work where touch is important, emphasis is on such training as will develop that sense.[12]

VARIATIONS IN SENSE POWER SHOULD BE UTILIZED.--Investigations are constantly going to prove that each sense has a predominance at a different time in the age of the child or man. Dottoressa Montessori's experience with teaching very young children by touch shows that that sense is able to discriminate to an extraordinary extent for the first six years of life.[13]

So, also, acute keenness of any sense, by reason of age or experience should be conserved.[14] Such acuteness is often the result of some need, and, unless consciously preserved, will vanish with the need.

PROGRESS IN SUCH TRAINING.--The elementary sense experiences are defined and described by Calkins.[15] Only through a psychological study can one realize the numerous elements and the possibility of study. As yet, doubtless, Scientific Management misses many opportunities for training and utilizing the senses. But the standardizing of elements, and the realization of the importance of more and more intensive study of the elements lends assurance that ultimately all possibilities will be utilized.

AS MANY SENSES AS POSSIBLE APPEALED TO.--Scientific Management has made great progress in appealing to as many senses as possible in its teaching. The importance of the relation between the senses is brought out by Prof. Stratton.[16]

In teaching, Scientific Management has, in its teachers, animate and inanimate, great possibilities of appealing to many senses simultaneously. The instruction card may be

1. read to oneself silently--eyes appealed to 2. read to oneself aloud--eyes and ears appealed to, also muscles used trained to repeat 3. read aloud to one--ears 4. read aloud to one and also read silently by one,-- eyes and ears 5. read aloud, and at the same time copied--eyes, ears, muscles of mouth, muscles of hand 6. read to one, while process described is demonstrated 7. read to one while process is performed by oneself

There are only a few of the possible combinations, any of which are used, as best suits the worker and the work.[17]

UNTRAINED WORKER REQUIRES APPEAL TO MOST SENSES.--The value of appeal to many senses is best realized in teaching an inexperienced worker. His senses help to remind him what to do, and to "check up" his results.

AT TIMES APPEAL TO BUT ONE SENSE PREFERABLE.--In the case of work that must be watched constantly, and that involves continuous processes, it may prove best to have directions read to the worker. So also, the Gang Instruction Card may often be read to advantage to the gang, thus allowing the next member of a group of members to rest, or to observe, while directions are taken in through the ears only. In this way time is allowed to overcome fatigue, yet the work is not halted.

AT TIMES ONE SENSE IS BEST NOT UTILIZED.--At times teaching may well omit one sense in its appeal, because that sense will tend to confuse the learning, and will, when the method is learned, be otherwise utilized than it could be during the learning process. In teaching the "touch system" of typewriting,[18] the position of the keys is quickly remembered by having the key named aloud and at the same time struck with the assigned finger, the eyes being blindfolded. Thus hearing is utilized, also mouth muscles and finger muscles, but _not_ sight.

IMPORTANCE OF FATIGUE RECOGNIZED.--A large part of the success of sense appeal and sense training of Scientific Management is in the appreciation of the importance of fatigue. This was early recognized by Dr. Taylor, and is constantly receiving study from all those interested in Scientific Management.

PSYCHOLOGY ALREADY AIDING THE INDUSTRIES IN SUCH STUDY.--Study of the _Psychological Review_ will demonstrate the deep and increasing interest of psychologists in the subject of fatigue. The importance of such stimulating and helpful work as that done by Doctor A. Imbert of the University of Montpellier, France, is great.[19] Not only are the results of his investigations commercially valuable, but also they are valuable as indicating the close connection between Psychology and Industrial Efficiency.

IMPORTANCE OF HABITS.[20]--Prof. William James says "an acquired habit, from the psychological point of view, is nothing but a new pathway of discharge formed in the brain, by which certain incoming currents ever after tend to escape."

And again,--"First, habit simplifies our movements, makes them accurate, and diminishes fatigue,"[21] and habit diminishes the conscious attention with which our acts are performed. Again he says, page 144, "The great thing, then, in all education, is to make our nervous system our ally instead of an enemy; as it is to fund and capitalize our acquisitions, and live at ease upon the interest of the fund. For this we must make automatic and habitual, as early as possible, as many useful actions as we can, and guard against the growing into ways that are likely to be disadvantageous to us, as we should guard against the plague."

These quotations demonstrate the importance of habit.

How deep these paths of discharge are, is illustrated by the fact that often a German, having spent the early years of his school life in Germany, will, even after learning to speak, read, write and think in English, find it difficult to figure in anything but German.

HABIT EASILY BECOMES THE MASTER.--Another illustration of the power of habit is exhibited by the bricklayer, who has been trained under old-time methods, and who attempts to follow the packet method. The standard motions for picking up the upper row of bricks from the packet are entirely different from those for picking up the lower row. The bricklayers were taught this, yet invariably used the old-time motions for picking up the bricks, in spite of the waste involved.[22]

WRONG PRECONCEIVED IDEAS HAMPER DEVELOPMENT.--Wrong habits or ideas often retard development. For example, it took centuries for artists to see the colors of shadows correctly, because they were sure that such shadows were a darker tone of the color itself.[23]

TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT RESULTS IN GOOD HABITS.--The aim of teaching under Scientific Management, as has been said, is to create good habits of thinking and good habits of doing.

STANDARDS LEAD TO RIGHT METHODS OF THINKING AND ACTING.--The standards of Scientific Management, as presented to the worker in the instruction card, lead to good habits, in that they present the best known method of doing the work. They thus aid the beginner, in that he need waste no time searching for right methods, but can acquire right habits at once. They aid the worker trained under an older, supplanted method, in that they wage a winning war against old-time, worn-out methods and traditions. Old motor images, which tend to cause motions, are overcome by standard images, which suggest, and pass into, standard motions. The spontaneous recurring of images under the old method is the familiar cause of inattention and being unable to get down to business, and the real cause of the expression, "You can't teach old dogs new tricks." On the other hand, the spontaneous recurrence of the images of the standard method is the cause of greater speed of movement of the experienced man, and these images of the standard methods do recur often enough to drive down the old images and to enable all men who desire, to settle down and concentrate upon what they are doing.

THROUGH STANDARDS BAD HABITS ARE QUICKEST BROKEN.--Through the standards the bad habit is broken by the abrupt acquisition of a new habit. This is at once practiced, is practiced without exception, and is continually practiced until the new habit is in control.[24]

THROUGH STANDARDS NEW HABITS ARE QUICKEST FORMED.--These same standards, as presented in teaching, allow of the speediest forming of habits, in that repetition is exact and frequent, and is kept so by the fact that the worker's judgment seconds that of the teacher.

HABITS ARE INSTILLED BY TEACHING.--The chief function of the teacher during the stage that habits are being formed is the instilling of good habits.

METHODS OF INSTILLING GOOD HABITS.--This he does by insisting on

1. right motions first, that is to say,--the right number of right motions in the right sequence. 2. speed of motions second, that is to say, constantly increasing speed. 3. constantly improving quality.[25]

THIS METHOD IS CONTRARY TO MOST OLD-TIME PRACTICE.--Under most old-time practice the quality of the work was the first consideration, the quantity of work the second, and the methods of achieving the results the third.

RESULTS OF OLD-TIME PRACTICE.--As a result, the mechanical reactions, which were expected constantly to follow the improved habits of work, were constantly hindered by an involuntary impulse of the muscles to follow the old methods. Waste time and low output followed.

SOME EARLY RECOGNITION OF "RIGHT MOTIONS FIRST."--The necessity of teaching the right motions first was early recognized by a few progressive spirits, as is shown in military tactics; for example, see pages 6 and 7, "Cavalry Tactics of U.S.A." 1879, D. Appleton, also page 51.

Note also motions for grooming the horse, page 473. These directions not only teach the man how, but accustoms the horse to the sequence and location of motions that he may expect.

BENEFITS OF TEACHING RIGHT MOTIONS FIRST.--Through teaching right motions first reactions to stimuli gain in speed. The right habit is formed at the outset. With the constant insistence on these right habits that result from right motions, will come, naturally, an increase in speed, which should be fostered until the desired ultimate speed is reached.

ULTIMATELY, STANDARD QUALITY WILL RESULT.--The result of absolute insistence on right motions will be prescribed quality, because the standard motions prescribed were chosen because they best produced the desired result.

UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT NO LOSS FROM QUALITY DURING LEARNING.--As will be shown later, Scientific Management provides that there shall be little or no loss from the quality of the work during the learning period. The delay in time before the learner can be said to produce such work as could a learner taught where quality was insisted upon first of all, is more than compensated for by the ultimate combination of speed and quality gained.

RESULTS OF TEACHING THE RIGHT MOTIONS FIRST ARE FAR-REACHING.--There is no more important subject in this book on the Psychology of Management than this of teaching right motions first. The most important results of Scientific Management can all, in the last analysis, be formulated in terms of habits, even to the underlying spirit of cooeperation which, as we shall show in "Welfare," is one of the most important ideas of Scientific Management. These right habits of Scientific Management are the cause, as well as the result, of progress, and the right habits, which have such a tremendous psychological importance, are the result of insisting that right motions be used from the very beginning of the first day.

FROM RIGHT HABITS OF MOTION COMES SPEED OF MOTIONS.-- Concentrating the mind on the next motion causes speed of motion. Under Scientific Management, the underlying thought of sequence of motions is so presented that the worker can remember them, and make them in the shortest time possible.

RESPONSE TO STANDARDS BECOMES ALMOST AUTOMATIC.--The standard methods, being associated from the start with right habits of motions only, cause an almost automatic response. There are no discarded habits to delay response.

STEADY NERVES RESULT.--Oftentimes the power to refrain from action is quite as much a sign of education and training as the power to react quickly from a sensation. Such conduct is called, in some cases, "steady nerves." The forming of right habits is a great aid toward these steady nerves. The man who knows that he is taught the right way, is able almost automatically to resist any suggestions which come to him to carry out wrong ways. So the man who is absolutely sure of his method, for example, in laying brick, will not be tempted to make those extra motions which, after all, are merely an exhibition in his hand of the vacillation that is going on in his brain, as to whether he really is handling that brick in exactly the most efficient manner, or not.

REASON AND WILL ARE EDUCATED.--"The education of hand and muscle implies a corresponding training of reasoning and will; and the cooerdination of movements accompanies the cooerdination of thoughts."[26]

The standards of Scientific Management educate hand and muscle; the education of hand and muscle train the mind; the mind improves the standards. Thus we have a continuous cycle.

JUDGMENT RESULTS WITH NO WASTE OF TIME.--Judgment is the outcome of learning the right way, and knowing that it is the right way. There is none of the lost time of "trying out" various methods that exists under Traditional Management.

This power of judgment will not only enable the possessor to decide correctly as to the relative merits of different methods, but also somewhat as to the past history and possibilities of different workers.

This, again, illustrates the wisdom of Scientific Management in promoting from the ranks, and thus providing that every member of the organization shall, ultimately, know from experience how to estimate and judge the work of others.

HABITS OF ATTENTION FORMED BY SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The good habits which result from teaching standard methods result in habits of attention. The standards aid the mind in holding a "selective attitude,"[27] by presenting events in an orderly sequence. The conditions under which the work is done, and the incentives for doing it, provide that the attention shall be "lively and prolonged."

PRESCRIBED MOTIONS AFFORD RHYTHM AND AESTHETIC PLEASURE.--The prescribed motions that result from motion study and time study, and that are arranged in cycles, afford a rhythm that allows the attention to "glide over some beats and linger on others," as Prof. Stratton describes it, in a different connection.[28] So also the "perfectly controlled" movements, which fall under the direction of a guiding law, and which "obey the will absolutely,"[29] give an aesthetic pleasure and afford less of a tax upon the attention.

INSTRUCTION CARD CREATES AND HOLDS ATTENTION.--As has been already said in describing the instruction card under Standardization, it was designed as a result of investigations as to what would best secure output,--to attract and hold the attention.[30] Providing, as it does, all directions that an experienced worker is likely to need, he can confine his attention solely to his work and his card; usually, after the card is once studied, to his work alone. The close relation of the elements of the instruction card affords a field for attention to lapse, and be recalled in the new elements that are constantly made apparent.

ORAL INDIVIDUAL TEACHING FOSTERS CONCENTRATED ATTENTION.--The fact that under Scientific Management oral teaching is individual, not only directly concentrates the attention of the learner upon what he is being taught, but also indirectly prevents distraction from fear of ridicule of others over the question, or embarrassment in talking before a crowd.

THE BULLETIN BOARD FURNISHES THE ELEMENT OF CHANGE.--In order that interest or attention may be held, there must be provision for allied subjects on which the mind is to wander. This, under Scientific Management, is constantly furnished by the collection of jobs ahead on the bulletin board. The tasks piled up ahead upon this bulletin board provide a needed and ready change for the subject of attention or interest, which conserves the economic value of concentrated attention of the worker upon his work. Such future tasks furnish sufficient range of subject for wandering attention to rest the mind from the wearying effect of overconcentration or forced attention. The assigned task of the future systematizes the "stream of attention," and an orderly scheme of habits of thought is installed. When the scheme is an orderly shifting of attention, the mind is doing its best work, for, while the standardized extreme subdivision of Taylor's plan, the comparison of the ultimate unit, and groupings of units of future tasks are often helps in achieving the present tasks, without such a definite orderly scheme for shifting the attention and interest, the attention will shift to useless subjects, and the result will be scattered.

INCENTIVES MAINTAIN INTEREST.--The knowledge that a prompt reward will follow success stimulates interest. The knowledge that this reward is sure concentrates attention and thus maintains interest.

In the same way, the assurance of promotion, and the fact that the worker sees those of his own trade promoted, and knows it is to the advantage of the management, as well as to his advantage, that he also be promoted,--this also maintains interest in the work.

THIS INTEREST EXTENDS TO THE WORK OF OTHERS.--The interest is extended to the work of others, not only by the interrelated bonuses, but also by the fact that every man is expected to train up a man to take his place, before he is promoted.

CLOSE RELATIONSHIP OF ALL PARTS OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT HOLDS INTEREST.--The attention of the entire organization, as well as of the individual worker, is held by Scientific Management and its teaching, because all parts of Scientific Management are related, and because Scientific Management provides for scientifically directed progression. Every member of the organization knows that the standards which are taught by Scientific Management contain the permanent elements of past successes, and provide for such development as will assure progress and success in the future. Every member of the organization realizes that upon his individual cooeperation depends, in part, the stability of Scientific Management, because it is based on universal cooeperation. This provides an intensity and a continuity of interest that would still hold, even though some particular element might lose its interest.

THIS RELATIONSHIP ALSO PROVIDES FOR ASSOCIATIONS.--The close relationship of all parts of Scientific Management provides that all ideas are associated, and are so closely connected that they can act as a single group, or any selected number of elements can act as a group.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ESTABLISHES BRAIN GROUPS THAT HABITUALLY ACT IN UNISON.--Professor Read, in describing the general mental principle of association says, "When any number of brain cells have been in action together, they form a habit of acting in unison, so that when one of them is stimulated in a certain way, the others will also behave in the way established by the habit."[31] This working of the brain is recognized in grouping of motions, such as "playing for position."[32] Scientific Management provides the groups, the habit, and the stimulus, all according to standard methods, so that the result is largely predictable.

METHOD OF ESTABLISHING SUCH GROUPS IN THE WORKER'S BRAIN.--The standard elements of Scientific Management afford units for such groups. Eventually, with the use of such elements in instruction cards, would be formed, in the minds of the worker, such groups of units as would aid in foreseeing results, just as the foreseeing of groups of moves aids the expert chess or checker player. The size and number of such groups would indicate the skill of the worker.

That such skill may be gained quickest, Scientific Management synthesizes the units into definite groups, and teaches these to the workers as groups.

TEACHING DONE BY MEANS OF MOTION CYCLES.--The best group is that which completes the simplest cycle of performance. This enables the worker to associate certain definite motions, to make these into a habit, and to concentrate his attention upon the cycle as a whole, and not upon the elementary motions of which it is composed.

For example--The cycle of the pick and dip process of bricklaying is to pick up a brick and a trowel full of mortar simultaneously and deposit them on the wall simultaneously.[33] The string mortar method has two cycles, which are, first to pick a certain number of trowelfuls of mortar and deposit them on the wall, and then to pick up a corresponding number of bricks and deposit them on the wall.[34] Each cycle of these two methods consists of an association of units that can be remembered as a group.

SUCH CYCLES INDUCE SPEED.--The worker who has been taught thus to associate the units of attention and action into definite rhythmic cycles, is the one who is most efficient, and least fatigued by a given output. The nerves acquire the habit, as does the brain, and the resulting swift response to stimulus characterizes the efficiency of the specialist.[35]

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT RESTRICTS ASSOCIATIONS.--By its teaching of standard methods, Scientific Management restricts association, and thus gains in the speed with which associated ideas arise.[36] Insistence on causal sequence is a great aid. This is rendered by the Systems, which give the reasons, and make the standard method easy to remember.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PRESENTS SCIENTIFICALLY DERIVED KNOWLEDGE TO THE MEMORY.--Industrial memory is founded on experience, and that experience that is submitted by teaching under Scientific Management to the mind is in the form of scientifically derived standards. These furnish

(a) data that is correct. (b) images that are an aid in acquiring new habits of forming efficient images. (c) standards of comparison, and constant demands for comparison. (d) such arrangement of elements that reasoning processes are stimulated. (e) conscious, efficient grouping. (f) logical association of ideas.

PROVISION FOR REPETITION OF IMPORTANT IDEAS.--Professor Ebbinghaur says, "Associations that have equal reproductive power lapse the more slowly, the older they are, and the oftener they have been reviewed by renewed memorizing." Scientific Management provides for utilizing this law by teaching right motions first, and by so minutely dividing the elements of such motions that the smallest units discovered are found frequently, in similar and different operations.

BEST PERIODS FOR MEMORIZING UTILIZED.--As for education of the memory, there is a wide difference of opinion among leading psychologists in regard to whether or not the memorizing faculty, as the whole, can be improved by training; but all agree that those things which are specially desired to be memorized can be learned more easily, and more quickly, under some conditions than under others:

For example, there is a certain time of day, for each person, when the memory is more efficient than at other times. This is usually in the morning, but is not always so. The period when memorizing is easiest is taken advantage of, and, as far as possible, new methods and new instruction cards are passed out at that time when the worker is naturally best fitted to remember what is to be done.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES RESPECTED.--It is a question that varies with different conditions, whether the several instruction cards beyond the one he is working on shall be given to the worker ahead of time, that he may use his own judgment as to when is the best time to learn, or whether he shall have but one at a time, and concentrate on that. For certain dispositions, it is a great help to see a long line of work ahead. They enjoy getting the work done, and feeling that they are more or less ahead of record. Others become confused if they see too much ahead, and would rather attack but one problem at a time. This fundamental difference in types of mind should be taken advantage of when laying out material to be memorized.

AID OF MNEMONIC SYMBOLS TO THE MEMORY.--The mnemonic classifications furnish a place where the worker who remembers but little of a method or process can go, and recover the full knowledge of that which he has forgotten. Better still, they furnish him the equivalent of memory of other experiences that he has never had, and that are in such form that he can connect this with his memory of his own personal experience.

The ease with which a learner or skilled mechanic can associate new, scientifically derived data with his memory, because of the classifications of Scientific Management, is a most important cause of workers being taught quicker, and being more intelligent, under Scientific Management, than under any other type of management.

PROPER LEARNING INSURES PROPER REMEMBERING.--Professor Read says, "Take care of the learning and the remembering will take care of itself."[37] Scientific Management both provides proper knowledge, and provides that this shall be utilized in such a manner that proper remembering will ensue.

BETTER HABITS OF REMEMBERING RESULT.--The results of cultivating the memory under Scientific Management are cumulative. Ultimately, right habits of remembering result that aid the worker automatically so to arrange his memory material as to utilize it better.[38]

"IMAGINATION" HAS TWO DEFINITIONS.--Professor Read gives definitions for two distinct means of Imagination.

1. "The general function of the having of images." 2. "The particular one of having images which are not consciously memories or the reproduction of the facts of experience as they were originally presented to consciousness."[39]

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PROVIDES MATERIAL FOR IMAGES.--As was shown under the discussion of the appeals of the various teaching devices of Scientific Management,--provision is made for the four classes of imagination of Calkins[40]--

1. visual, 2. auditory, 3. tactual, and 4. mixed.

IT ALSO REALIZES THE IMPORTANCE OF PRODUCTIVE IMAGINATION.--Scientific Management realizes that one of the special functions of teaching the trades is systematic exercising and guiding of imaginations of apprentices and learners. As Professor Ennis says,--"Any kind of planning ahead will result in some good," but to plan ahead most effectively it is necessary to have a well-developed power of constructive imagination. This consists of being able to construct new mental images from old memory images; of being able to modify and group images of past experiences, or thoughts, in combination with new images based on imagination, and not on experience. The excellence of the image arrived at in the complete work is dependent wholly upon the training in image forming in the past. If there has not been a complete economic system of forming standard habits of thought, the worker may have difficulty in controlling the trend of associations of thought images, and difficulty in adding entirely new images to the groups of experienced images, and the problem to be thought out will suffer from wandering of the mind. The result will be more like a dream than a well balanced mental planning. It is well known that those apprentices, and journeymen as well, are the quickest to learn, and are better learners, who have the most vivid imagination. The best method of teaching the trade, therefore, is the one that also develops the power of imagination.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ASSISTS PRODUCTIVE IMAGINATION.-- Scientific Management assists productive, or constructive, imagination, not only by providing standard units, or images, from which the results may, be synthesized, but also, through the unity of the instruction card, allows of imagination of the outcome, from the start.

For example,--in performing a prescribed cycle of motions, the worker has his memory images grouped in such a figure, form, or sequence,--often geometrical,--that each motion is a part of a growing, clearly imagined whole.

The elements of the cycle may be utilized in other entirely new cycles, and are, as provided for in the opportunities for invention that are a part of Scientific Management.

JUDGMENT THE RESULT OF FAITHFUL ENDEAVOR.--Judgment, or the "mental process which ends in an affirmation or negation of something,"[41] comes as the result of experience, as is admirably expressed by Prof. James,--"Let no youth have any anxiety about the upshot of his education whatever the line of it may be. If he keeps faithfully busy each hour of the working day, he may safely leave the final result to itself. He can with perfect certainty count on waking up some fine morning, to find himself one of the competent ones of his generation, in whatever pursuit he may have singled out. Silently, between all the details of his business, the _power of judging_ in all that class of matter will have built itself up within him as a possession that will never pass away. Young people should know this truth in advance.[42] The ignorance of it has probably engendered more discouragement and faint-heartedness in youths embarking on arduous careers than all other causes put together."[43]

TEACHING SUPPLIES THIS JUDGMENT UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Under Scientific Management this judgment is the result of teaching of standards that are recognized as such by the learner. Thus, much time is eliminated, and the apprentice under Scientific Management can work with all the assurance as to the value of his methods that characterized the seasoned veterans of older types of management.

TEACHING ALSO UTILIZES THE JUDGMENT.--The judgment that is supplied by Scientific Management is also used as a spring toward action.[44] Scientific Management appeals to the reason, and workers perform work as they do because, through the Systems and otherwise, they are persuaded that the method they employ is the best.

THE POWER OF SUGGESTION IS ALSO UTILIZED.[45]--The dynamic power of ideas is recognized by Scientific Management, in that the instruction card is put in the form of direct commands, which, naturally, lead to immediate action. So, also, the teaching written, oral and object, as such, can be directly imitated by the learner.[46]

Imitation, which Dr. Stratton says "may well be counted a special form of suggestion," will be discussed later in this chapter at length.[47]

WORKER ALWAYS HAS OPPORTUNITY TO CRITICISE THE SUGGESTION.--The worker is expected to follow the suggestion of Scientific Management without delay, because he believes in the standardization on which it is made, and in the management that makes it. But the Systems afford him an opportunity of reviewing the reasonableness of the suggestion at any time, and his constructive criticism is invited and rewarded.

SUGGESTION MUST BE FOLLOWED AT THE TIME.--The suggestion must be followed at the time it is given, or its value as a suggestion is impaired. This is provided for by the underlying idea of cooeperation on which Scientific Management rests, which molds the mental attitude of the worker into that form where suggestions are quickest grasped and followed.[48]

"NATIVE REACTIONS" ENUMERATED BY PROF. JAMES.--Prof. James enumerates the "native reactions" as (1) fear, (2) love, (3) curiosity, (4) imitation, (5) emulation, (6) ambition, (7) pugnacity, (8) pride, (9) ownership, (10) constructiveness.[49] These are all considered by Scientific Management. Such as might have a harmful effect are supplanted, others are utilized.

FEAR UTILIZED BY ANCIENT MANAGERS.--The native reaction most utilized by the first managers of armies and ancient works of construction was that of fear. This is shown by the ancient rock carvings, which portray what happened to those who disobeyed.[50]

FEAR STILL USED BY TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--Fear of personal bodily injury is not usual under modern Traditional Management, but fear of less progress, less promotion, less remuneration, or of discharge, or of other penalties for inferior effort or efficiency is still prevalent.

FEAR TRANSFORMED UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Under Scientific Management the worker may still fear that he will incur a penalty, or fail to deserve a reward, but the honest, industrious worker experiences no such horror as the old-time fear included. This is removed by his knowledge

1. that his task is achievable. 2. that his work will not injure his health. 3. that he may be sure of advancement with age and experience. 4. that he is sure of the "square deal."

Thus such fear as he has, has a good and not an evil effect upon him. It is an incentive to cooeperate willingly. Its immediate and ultimate effects are advantageous.

LOVE, OR LOYALTY, FOSTERED BY SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The worker's knowledge that the management plans to maintain such conditions as will enable him to have the four assurances enumerated above leads to love, or loyalty, between workers and employers.[51]

Far from Scientific Management abolishing the old personal and sympathetic relations between employers and workers, it gives opportunities for such relations as have not existed since the days of the guilds, and the old apprenticeship.[52]

The cooeperation upon which Scientific Management rests does away with the traditional "warfare" between employer and workers that made permanent friendliness almost impossible. Cooeperation induces friendliness and loyalty of each member in the organization to all the others.

Mr. Wilfred Lewis says, in describing the installation of Scientific Management in his plant, "We had, in effect, been installing at great expense a new and wonderful means for increasing the efficiency of labor, in the benefits of which the workman himself shared, and we have today an organization second, I believe, to none in its loyalty, efficiency and steadfastness of purpose."[53] This same loyalty of the workers is plain in an article in _Industrial Engineering_, on "Scientific Management as Viewed from the Workman's Standpoint," where various men in a shop having Scientific Management were interviewed.[54] After quoting various workers' opinions of Scientific Management and their own particular shop, the writer says: "Conversations with other men brought out practically the same facts. They are all contented. They took pride in their work, and seemed to be especially proud of the fact that they were employed in the Link-Belt shops."[55]

TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT DEVELOPS SUCH LOYALTY.--The manner of teaching under Scientific Management fosters such loyalty. Only through friendly aid can both teacher and taught prosper. Also, the perfection of the actual workings of this plan of management inspires regard as well as respect for the employer.

VALUE OF PERSONALITY NOT ELIMINATED.--It is a great mistake to think that Scientific Management underestimates the value of personality.[56] Rather, Scientific Management enhances the value of an admirable personality. This is well exemplified in the Link-Belt Co.,[57] and in the Tabor Manufacturing Co. of Philadelphia, as well as on other work where Scientific Management has been installed a period of several years.

CURIOSITY AROUSED BY SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Scientific Management arouses the curiosity of the worker, by showing, through its teaching, glimpses of the possibilities that exist for further scientific investigation. The insistence on standard methods of less waste arouses a curiosity as to whether still less wasteful methods cannot be found.

CURIOSITY UTILIZED BY SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--This curiosity is very useful as a trait of the learner, the planner and the investigator. It can be well utilized by the teacher who recognizes it in the learner, by an adaptation of methods of interpreting the instruction card, that will allow of partially satisfying, and at the same time further exciting, the curiosity.

In selecting men for higher positions, and for special work, curiosity as to the work, with the interest that is its result, may serve as an admirable indication of one sort of fitness. This curiosity, or general interest, is usually associated with a personal interest that makes it more intense, and more easy to utilize.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PLACES A HIGH VALUE ON IMITATION.--It was a popular custom of the past to look down with scorn on the individual or organization that imitated others. Scientific Management believes that to imitate with great precision the best, is a work of high intelligence and industrial efficiency.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT USES BOTH SPONTANEOUS AND DELIBERATE IMITATION.--Teaching under Scientific Management induces both spontaneous and deliberate imitation. The standardization prevalent, and the conformity to standards exacted, provide that this imitation shall follow directed lines.

SPONTANEOUS IMITATION UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT HAS VALUABLE RESULTS.--Under Scientific Management, the worker will spontaneously imitate the teacher, when the latter has been demonstrating. This leads to desired results. So, also, the worker imitates, more or less spontaneously, his own past methods of doing work. The right habits early formed by Scientific Management insure that the results of such imitation shall be profitable.

DELIBERATE IMITATION CONSTANTLY ENCOURAGED.--Deliberate imitation is caused more than anything else by the fact that the man knows, if he does the thing in the way directed, his pay will be increased.

Such imitation is also encouraged by the fact that the worker is made to believe that he is capable, and has the will to overcome obstacles. He knows that the management believes he can do the work, or the instruction card would not have been issued to him. Moreover, he sees that the teacher and demonstrator is a man promoted from his rank, and he is convinced, therefore, that what the teacher can do he also can do.[58]

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PROVIDES STANDARDS FOR IMITATION.--It is of immense value in obtaining valuable results from imitation, that Scientific Management provides standards. Under Traditional Management, it was almost impossible for a worker to decide which man he should imitate. Even though he might come to determine, by constant observation, after a time, which man he desired to imitate, he would not know in how far he would do well to copy any particular method. Recording individually measured output under Transitory Management allows of determining the man of high score, and either using him as a model, or formulating his method into rules. Under Scientific Management, the instruction card furnishes a method which the worker knows that he can imitate exactly, with predetermined results.

IMITATION IS EXPECTED OF ALL.--As standardization applies to the work of all, so imitation of standards is expected of all. This fact the teacher under Scientific Management can use to advantage, as an added incentive to imitation. Any dislike of imitation is further decreased, by making clear to every worker that those who are under him are expected to imitate him,--and that he must, himself, imitate his teachers, in order to set a worthy example.

IMITATION LEADS TO EMULATION.--Imitation, as provided for by teaching under Scientific Management, and admiration for the skillful teacher, or the standard imitated, naturally stimulate emulation. This emulation takes three forms:

1. Competition with the records of others. 2. Competition with one's own record. 3. Competition with the standard record.

NO HARD FEELING AROUSED.--In the first sort of competition only is there a possibility of hard feeling being aroused, but danger of this is practically eliminated by the fact that rewards are provided for all who are successful. In the second sort of competition, the worker, by matching himself against what he has done, measures his own increased efficiency. In the third sort of competition, there is the added stimulus of surprising the management by exceeding the task expected. The incentive in all three cases is not only more pay and a chance for promotion, but also the opportunity to win appreciation and publicity for successful performance.

AMBITION IS AROUSED.--The outcome of emulation is ambition. This ambition is stimulated by the fact that promotion is so rapid, and so outlined before the worker, that he sees the chance for advancement himself, and not only advancement that means more pay, but advancement also that means a chance to specialize on that work which he particularly likes.

PUGNACITY UTILIZED.--Pugnacity can never be entirely absent where there is emulation. Under Scientific Management it is used to overcome not persons, but things. Pugnacity is a great driving force. It is a wonderful thing that under Scientific Management this force is aroused not against one's fellow-workers, but against one's work. The desire to win out, to fight it out, is aroused against a large task, which the man desires to put behind him. Moreover, there is nothing under Scientific Management which forbids an athletic contest. While the workers would not, under the ultimate form, be allowed to injure themselves by overspeeding, a friendly race with a demonstration of pugnacity which harms no one is not frowned upon.

PRIDE IS STIMULATED.--Pride in one's work is aroused as soon as work is functionalized. The moment a man has something to do that he likes to do, and can do well, he takes pride in it. So, also, the fact that individuality, and personality, are recognized, and that his records are shown, makes pride serve as a stimulus. The outcome of the worker's pride in his work is pride in himself. He finds that he is part of a great whole, and he learns to take pride in the entire management,--in both himself and the managers, as well as in his own work.

FEELING OF OWNERSHIP PROVIDED FOR.--It may seem at first glance that the instinct of ownership is neglected, and becomes stunted, under Scientific Management, in that all tools become more or less standardized, and the man is discouraged from having tools peculiar in shape, or size, for whose use he has no warrant except long time of use.

Careful consideration shows that Scientific Management provides two opportunities for the worker to conserve his instinct for ownership,--

1. During working hours, where the recognition of his personality allows the worker to identify himself with his work, and where his cooeperation with the management makes him identified with its activities.

2. Outside the work. He has, under Scientific Management, more hours away from work to enjoy ownership, and more money with which to acquire those things that he desires to own.

The teacher must make clear to him both these opportunities, as he readily can, since the instinct of ownership is conserved in him in an identical manner.

CONSTRUCTIVENESS A PART OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Every act that the worker performs is constructive, because waste has been eliminated, and everything that is done is upbuilding. Teaching makes this clear to the worker. Constructiveness is also utilized in that exercise of initiative is provided for. Thus the instinct, instead of being weakened, is strengthened and directed.

PROGRESS IN UTILIZING INSTINCTS DEMANDS PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY.--Teaching under Scientific Management can never hope fully to understand and utilize native reactions, until more assistance has been given by psychology. At the present time, Scientific Management labors under disadvantages that must, ultimately, be removed. Psychologists must, by experiments, determine more accurately the reactions and their controlability. More thorough study must be made of children that Scientific Management may understand more of the nature of the reactions of the young workers who come for industrial training. Psychology must give its help in this training. Then only, can teaching under Scientific Management become truly efficient.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT REALIZES THE IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING THE WILL.--The most necessary, and most complex and difficult part of Scientific Management, is the training of the will of all members of the organization. Prof. Read states in his "Psychology" five means of training or influencing the will. These are[59]

"1. The first important feature in training the will is the help furnished by supplying the mind with a useful body of ideas. "2. The second great feature of the training of the will is the building up in the mind of the proper interests, and the habit of giving the attention to useful and worthy purposes. "3. Another important feature of the training of the will is the establishing of a firm association between ideas and actions, or, in other words, the forming of a good set of habits. "4. Another very important feature of the training of the will has reference to its strength of purpose or power of imitation. "5. The matter of discipline."

Teaching under Scientific Management does supply these five functions, and thus provide for the strengthening and development of the will.

VARIATIONS IN TEACHING OF APPRENTICES AND JOURNEYMEN.--Scientific Management must not only be prepared to teach apprentices, as must all types of management, it must also teach journeymen who have not acquired standard methods.

APPRENTICES ARE EASILY HANDLED.--Teaching apprentices is a comparatively simple proposition, far simpler than under any other type of management. Standard methods enable the apprentice to become proficient long before his brother could, under the old type of teaching. The length of training required depends largely on how fingerwise the apprentice is.

OLDER WORKERS MUST BE HANDLED WITH TACT.--With adult workers, the problem is not so simple. Old wrong habits, such as the use of ineffective motions, must be eliminated. Physically, it is difficult for the adult worker to alter his methods. Moreover, it may be most difficult to change his mental attitude, to convince him that the methods of Scientific Management are correct.

A successful worker under Traditional Management, who is proud of his work, will often be extremely sensitive to what he is prone to regard as the "criticism" of Scientific Management with regard to him.

APPRECIATION OF VARYING VIEWPOINTS NECESSARY.--No management can consider itself adequate that does not try to enter into the mental attitude of its workers. Actual practice shows that, with time and tact, almost any worker can be convinced that all criticism of him is constructive, and that for him to conform to the new standards is a mark of added proficiency, not an acknowledgment of ill-preparedness. The "Systems" do much toward this work of reconciling the older workers to the new methods, but most of all can be done by such teachers as can demonstrate their own change from old to standard methods, and the consequent promotion and success. This is, again, an opportunity for the exercise of personality.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PROVIDES PLACES FOR SUCH TEACHING.--Under the methods of teaching employed by Scientific Management,--right motions first, next speed, with quality as a resultant product,--it is most necessary to provide a place where learners can work. The standard planning of quality provides such a place. The plus and minus signs automatically divide labor so that the worker can be taught by degrees, being set at first where great accuracy is not demanded by the work, and being shifted to work requiring more accuracy as he becomes more proficient. In this way even the most untrained worker becomes efficient, and is engaged in actual productive work.

MEASUREMENT OF TEACHING AND LEARNING.--Under Scientific Management the results of teaching and learning become apparent automatically in records of output. The learner's record of output of proper prescribed quality determines what pay he shall receive, and also has a proportionate effect on the teacher's pay. Such a system of measurement may not be accurate as a report of the learner's gain,--for he doubtless gains mental results that cannot be seen in his output,--but it certainly does serve as an incentive to teaching and to learning.

RELATION OF TEACHING IN SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT TO ACADEMIC TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE.[60]--Teaching under Scientific Management can never be most efficient until the field of such teaching is restricted to training learners who are properly prepared to receive industrial training.[61] This preparedness implies fitting school and academic training, and Vocational Guidance.

LEARNER SHOULD BE MANUALLY ADEPT.--The learner should, before entering the industrial world, be taught to be manually adept, or fingerwise, to have such control over his trained muscles that they will respond quickly and accurately to orders. Such training should be started in infancy,[62] in the form of guided play, as, for example, whittling, sewing, knitting, handling mechanical toys and tools, and playing musical instruments, and continued up to, and into, the period of entering a trade.

SCHOOLS SHOULD PROVIDE MENTAL PREPAREDNESS.--The schools should render every student capable of filling some place worthily in the industries. The longer the student remains in school, the higher the position for which he should be prepared. The amount and nature of the training in the schools depends largely on the industrial work to be done, and will be possible of more accurate estimation constantly, as Scientific Management standardizes work and shows what the worker must be to be most efficient.

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE MUST PROVIDE DIRECTION.--As made most clear in Mr. Meyer Bloomfield's book, "Vocational Guidance,"[63] bureaus of competent directors stand ready to help the youth find that line of activity which he can follow best and with greatest satisfaction to himself. At present, such bureaus are seriously handicapped by the fact that little data of the industries are at hand, but this lack the bureaus are rapidly supplying by gathering such data as are available. Most valuable data will not be available until Scientific Management has been introduced into all lines.

PROGRESS DEMANDS COOePERATION.--Progress here, as everywhere, demands cooeperation.[64] The three sets of educators,--the teachers in the school, in the Vocational Guidance Bureaus, and in Scientific Management, must recognize their common work, and must cooeperate to do it. There is absolutely no cause for conflict between the three; their fields are distinct, but supplementary. Vocational Guidance is the intermediary between the other two.

SUMMARY

RESULTS TO THE WORK.--Under the teaching of Traditional Management, the learner may or may not improve the quantity and quality of his work. This depends almost entirely on the particular teacher whom the learner happens to have. There is no standard improvement to the work.

Under the teaching of Transitory Management, the work gains in quantity as the methods become standardized, and quality is maintained or improved.

Under the teaching of Scientific Management, work, the quantity of work, increases enormously through the use of standards of all kinds; quantity is oftentimes tripled.

Under the teaching of Scientific Management, when the schools and Vocational Guidance movement cooeperate, high output of required quality will be obtained at a far earlier stage of the worker's industrial life than is now possible, even under Scientific Management.

RESULTS TO THE WORKER.--Under Traditional Management, the worker gains a knowledge of how his work can be done, but the method by which he is taught is seldom, of itself, helpful to him. Not being sure that he has learned the best way to do his work, he gains no method of attack. The result of the teaching is a habit of doing work which is good, or bad, as chance may direct.

Under Transitory Management, with the use of Systems as teachers, the worker gains a better method of attack, as he knows the reason why the prescribed method is prescribed. He begins to appreciate the possibilities and benefits of standardized teaching.

The method laid down under Scientific Management is devised to further the forming of an accurate accumulation of concepts, which results in a proper method of attack. The method of instruction under Scientific Management is devised to furnish two things:

1. A collection of knowledge relating in its entirety to the future work of the learner. 2. A definite procedure, that will enable the learner to apply the same process to acquiring knowledge of other subjects in the most economical and efficient way.

It teaches the learner to be observant of details, which is the surest method for further development of general truths and concepts.

The method of attack of the methods provided for in Scientific Management results, naturally, in a comparison of true data. This is the most efficient method of causing the learner to think for himself.

Processes differing but little, apparently, give vastly different results, and the trained habits of observation quickly analyze and determine wherein the one process is more efficient than the other.

This result is, of course, the one most desired for causing quick and intelligent learning.

The most valuable education is that which enables the learner to make correct judgments. The teaching under Scientific Management leads to the acquisition of such judgment, plus an all-around sense training, a training in habits of work, and a progressive development.

A partial topic list of the results may make more clear their importance.

1. Worker better trained for all work. 2. Habits of correct thinking instilled. 3. Preparedness provided for. 4. Productive and repetitive powers increased. 5. Sense powers increased. 6. Habits of proper reaction established. 7. "Guided original work" established. 8. System of waste elimination provided. 9. Method of attack taught. 10. Brain fully developed. 11. "Standard response" developed. 12. Opportunities and demands for "thinking" provided. 13. Self-reliance developed. 14. Love of truth fostered. 15. Moral sentiment developed. 16. Resultant happiness of worker.

RESULTS TO BE EXPECTED IN THE FUTURE.--When the schools, vocational guidance and teaching under Scientific Management cooeperate, the worker will not only receive the benefits now obtained from Scientific Management, but many more. There will be nothing to unlearn, and each thing that is learned will be taught by those best fitted to teach it. The collection of vocational guidance data will begin with a child at birth, and a record of his inheritance will be kept. This will be added to as he is educated, and as various traits and tendencies appear. From this scientifically derived record will accrue such data as will assist in making clear exactly in what place the worker will be most efficient, and in what sphere he will be able to be most helpful to the world, as well as to himself. All early training will be planned to make the youth adept with his muscles, and alert, with a mind so trained that related knowledge is easily acquired.

When the vocation for which he is naturally best fitted becomes apparent, as it must from the study of the development of the youth and his desires, the school will know, and can give exactly, that training that is necessary for the vocation. It can also supplement his limitations intelligently, in case he decides to follow a vocation for which he is naturally handicapped.

This will bring to the industry learners prepared to be taught those things that characterize the industry, the "tricks of the trade," and the "secrets of the craft," now become standard, and free to all. Such teaching Scientific Management is prepared to give. The results of such teaching of Scientific Management will be a worker prepared in a short time to fill efficiently a position which will allow of promotion to the limit of his possibilities.

The result of such teaching will be truly educated workers, equipped to work, and to live,[65] and to share the world's permanent satisfactions.

The effect of such education on industrial peace must not be underestimated. With education, including in education learning and culture,--prejudice will disappear. The fact that all men, those going into industries and those not, will be taught alike to be finger wise as well as book wise, up to the time of entering the industries, will lead to a better understanding of each other all through life.

The entire bearing of Scientific Management on industrial peace cannot be here fully discussed. We must note here the strong effect that teaching under Scientific Management will ultimately have on doing away with industrial warfare,--the great warfare of ignorance, where neither side understands the other, and where each side should realize that large immediate sacrifices should be made if necessary, that there may be obtained the great permanent benefit and savings that can be obtained only by means of the heartiest cooeperation.

CHAPTER VIII FOOTNOTES: ============================================

1. F.B. Gilbreth, _Bricklaying System_, para. 541-545. 2. H.K. Hathaway, _Prerequisites to the Introduction of Scientific Management, Engineering Magazine,_ April, 1911, p. 141. 3. H.L. Gantt, paper 928, A.S.M.E., p. 372. 4. H.L. Gantt, _Work, Wages and Profits_, p. 116. 5. H.L. Gantt, paper 928, A.S.M.E., p. 342. 6. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, para. 289, Harper Ed., pp. 127-128. 7. H.K. Hathaway, _Engineering Magazine_, April, 1911, p. 144. 8. W.D. Ennis, _An Experiment in Motion Study, Industrial Engineering_, June, 1911, p. 462. 9. C.S. Myers, M.D., _An Introduction to Experimental Psychology_, chap. V, p. 73. 10. G. M. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, p. 125. 11. William James, _Psychology, Briefer Course_, p. 171. 12. F.B. Gilbreth, _Bricklaying System_, chap. I, _Training of Apprentices_. 13. _McClure's Magazine_, May, 1911, Dec, 1911, Jan., 1912. 14. As a woodman's keenness of hearing. 15. M.W. Calkins, _A First Book in Psychology_, chap. III. 16. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, chap. VII. 17. Compare with an actor's learning a part. 18. As proved by experimenting with a six-year-old child. 19. Imbert, _Etudes experimentales de travail professionnel ouvrier, Sur la fatigue engendree par les mouvements rapides_. 20. William James, _Psychology, Briefer Course_, p. 134. 21. _Ibid._, p. 138. William James, Psychology, Advanced Course. p. 112. 22. F.B. Gilbreth, _Bricklaying System_, p. 142. 23. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, p. 214. 24. Prof. Bain, quoted In William James' _Psychology, Briefer Course_, pp. 145-147. 25. F.B. Gilbreth, _Bricklaying System_, para. 18-19. 26. M.W. Calkins, _A First Book in Psychology_, p. 354. 27. James Sully, _The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology_, p. 119. 28. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, p. 99. 29. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_ p. 240. 30. Attracting the attention is largely a matter of appealing to what is known to interest, for example, to a known ambition. 31. M.S. Read, _An Introductory Psychology_, p. 183. 32. F.B. Gilbreth, _Motion Study_, p. 89. 33. _Ibid._, _Bricklaying System_, para. 555-557. 34. F.B. Gilbreth, _Bricklaying System_, p. 150. 35. M.S. Read, _An Introductory Psychology_, pp. 179-194. 36. G.M. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, p. 42. 37. M.S. Read, _An Introductory Psychology_, p. 208. 38. William James, _Psychology, Advanced Course_, Vol. I, p. 667. 39. M.S. Read, _An Introductory Psychology_, pp. 212-213. William James, _Psychology, Briefer Course_, p. 302. 40. M.W. Calkins, _A First Book in Psychology_, p. 25. 41. James Sully, _The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology_, p. 290. 42. William James, _Psychology, Briefer Course_, p. 150. 43. W.D. Scott, _Influencing Men in Business_, chap. II. 44. _Ibid._, chap. III. 45. W.D. Scott, _The Theory of Advertising_, p. 71. 46. W.D. Scott, _Increasing Human Efficiency in Business_, p. 41. 47. G.M. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, p. 200. 48. F.W. Taylor, _The Principles of Scientific Management_, p. 36. 49. William James, _Talks to Teachers_, chap. III. 50. Knight's _Mechanical Dictionary_, Vol. III, p. 2204. 51. For example, see W.D. Scott's _Increasing Efficiency in Business_, chap. IV. 52. R.A. Bray, _Boy Labor and Apprenticeship_, chap. II, especially p. 8. 53. Wilfred Lewis, _Proceedings of the Congress of Technology_, 1911, p. 175. 54. November, 1910. 55. The Link-Belt Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 56. For value of personality see J.W. Jenks's, _Governmental Action for Social Welfare_, p. 226. 57. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, para. 311, Harper Ed., p. 143. 58. Compare with the old darkey, who took her sons from a Northern school, where the teacher was white, in order to send them to a Southern school having a colored teacher that they might feel, as they looked at him, "What _that_ nigger can do, _this_ nigger can do." 59. M.S. Read, _An Introductory Psychology,_ pp. 297-303. 60. Hugo Muensterberg, _American Problems_, p. 29. 61. Morris Llewellyn Cooke, _Bulletin No. 5_ of _The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching_, p. 70. William Kent, _Discussion of Paper 647_, A.S.M.E., p. 891. 62. A well known athlete started throwing a ball at his son in infancy, to prepare him to be an athlete, thus practically sure of a college education. 63. Meyer Bloomfield, _The Vocational Guidance of Youth_, Houghton Mifflin & Co. 64. A. Pimloche, _Pestalozzi and the Foundation of the Modern Elementary School_, p. 139. 65. Friedrich Froebel, _Education of Man_, "To secure for this ability skill and directness, to lift it into full consciousness, to give it insight and clearness, and to exalt it into a life of creative freedom, is the business of the subsequent life of man in successive stages of development and cultivation."

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